外文文献：
Project Cost Control The Way it Works
In a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control how it is setup and applied So we decided to write up a description of how it works Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory
First you establish a set of reference baselines Then as work progresses you monitor the work analyze the findings forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan you may have to change the plan More likely there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway
But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs It also involves a significant amount of work as we shall see and we might as well start at the beginning So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span
And while we are at it we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents These include the Business Case the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution) Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure the Project Charter (or Brief) the Project Budget or Cost Plan Earned Value and the Cost Baseline All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs
Footnote
113页
I am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming the guru of Earned Value for checking and correcting my work on this topic
The Business Case and Application for (execution) Funding
It is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points between the major phases They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events
In the project's Concept Phase
• Every project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need That is usually someone of importance or influence if the project is to proceed and that person often becomes the project's sponsor
• To determine the suitability of the potential project most organizations call for the preparation of a Business Case and its Order of Magnitude cost to justify the value of the project so that it can be compared with all the other competing projects This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio
• The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization The problem is how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward
• If the Business case has sufficient merit approval will be given to proceed to a Development and Definition phase
In the project's Development or Definition Phase
• The objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project
• In a formalized setting especially where big projects are involved this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR)
213页
• This requires the collection of more detailed requirements and data to establish what work needs to be done to produce the required product or deliverable From this information a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request
• In a less formalized setting everyone just tries to muddle through
Work Packages and the WBS
The Project Management Plan Project Brief or Project Charter
• If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements these are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) • Each WP involves a set of activities the work that is planned and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan Note however that the planning will still be at a relatively high level and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead
• This Project Management Plan by the way should become the bible for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the Project Brief or the Project Charter
• The cost of doing the various activities is then estimated and these estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP This approach is known as detailed estimating or bottom up estimating There are other approaches to estimating that we'll come to in a minute Either way the result is an estimated cost of the total work of the project
Note that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation This might take the form of specific contingency planning andor the setting aside of prudent funding reserves
Request for capital
Converting the estimate
• However an estimate of the work alone is not sufficient for a capital request To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary for example by adding prudent allowances such as overheads a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes
313页
• In addition it may be necessary to convert the estimating data into a financial accounting format that satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval
• In practice all the data for the type of bottom up approach just described may not be available In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a top down fashion For example
Order of Magnitude estimate – a ball park estimate usually reserved for the concept phase only
Analogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projects
Parametric estimate – an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data
• Whichever approach is adopted hopefully the sum thus arrived at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the project
Note Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to sharpen their pencils and work smarter for the benefit of the organization This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work Consequently the effect is more likely to result in corner cutting with an adverse effect on product quality or reduced product scope or functionality This often leads to a game in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust them downwards But to be fair management is also well aware that if money is over allocated it will get spent anyway The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds varying with the riskiness of the project and keep that money under careful control
Ownership of approved capital
• If senior management approves the RFA as presented the sum in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor However if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a Management Reserve this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor depending on the policies of the organization
• For the approved RFA the project sponsor will in turn further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance • The net sum thus arrived at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget
413页
Note If management does not approve the RFA you should not consider this a project failure Either the goals objectives justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding
The Project's Execution Phase
The project manager's Project Budget responsibility
• Once this Approved Project Budget is released to the project manager a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document That is the money available must be divided amongst the various WBS WPs that by the way have probably by now been upgraded This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget or simply the Project Budget In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan
• On a large project where different corporate production divisions are involved there may be a further intermediate step of creating Control Accounts for the separate divisions so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs
• Observe that since the total Project Budget received formal approval from Ex ecutive Management you as project manager must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management via the project's sponsor formal approval for any changes to the total project budget Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change
• In such a case the project's sponsor will either draw down on the management reserve in his or her possession or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management
• Now that we have the Project Budget money allocated to Work Pack ages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a Baseline cost for each activity
• This provides us with the base of reference for the cost control function Of course depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level
Use of the Earned Value technique
• If we have the necessary details another control tool that we can adopt for monitoring ongoing
work is the Earned Value (EV) technique This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject
• But essentially you take the costs of the schedule activities and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base Again you can do this at the activity level WP level or the whole project level The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in
The Cost Baseline
• This planned reference Scurve is sometimes referred to as the Cost Baseline typically in EV parlance That is it is the Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled (BCWS) or more simply the Planned Value (PV)
• Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost andor schedule implications and consequently changes the project's Approved Project Budget
• Now as the work progresses you can plot the Actual Cost of Work Performed (ACWP or simply Actual Cost AC)
• You can plot other things as well see diagram referred to above and if you don't like what you see then you need to take Corrective Action
Commentary
This whole process is a cyclic situational operation and is probably the source of the term cycle in the popularly misnamed project life cycle
As an aside the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result that is the Estimate At Completion (EAC) EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project Therefore these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as topdown estimating They are useful but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing
But as we said at the beginning it is a lot more difficult to do in practice – and involves a significant amount of work But let's face it that's what project managers are hired for right
613页
中文译文：
项目成控制：工作方式
咨询务中意识整项目成控制体系设置应问题缺乏解决定写出工作说明理讲项目成控制难
首先建立套参考基准然工作进展监察工作分析结果显示预测终结果参考基线作较果终结果令满意正进行中必工作进行调整适时间间隔重复循环果终结果已基线计划脱节改变计划更会（已）变化范围改变参考基线意味着次范围发生变化必须改变基线计划
通项目数量未控制成证明实践中项目成控制难真正实施涉相数量工作妨开始启动通整项目线程寿命进行工程造价控制
时机会指出显著适方文件措施包括商业案例（资）请求拨款（执行）工作包工作分解结构项目章程（摘）项目预算成计划获价值成基准助提高该组织效控制项目成力 脚注
感谢朋友师昆汀•弗莱明检查纠正关题工作
（执行）资助商业案例应
重注意负责执行理者项目应通项目寿命展开问题理解时项目成控制效意味着阶段关键决策点间行责必须认识少明显潜危险事件查明规划掌
713页
关闭项目风险理重性
项目概念阶段
•项目确定机会需开始通常定重性影响力果该项目继续进行成该项目赞助者
•确定潜项目适性数组织呼吁编制商业案例量级成证明该项目价值项目竞争
•企业商业案例准备工作成通常包括理开销结转终项目会计成毫疑问该组织提供税务利益问题占结转项目？
•果足够商业案例优点赞助者继续发展定义阶段
该项目发展定义阶段
•开发阶段目标建立种涉生产需产品估计成该项目实际执行寻求资资金良工作认识
•正式设置尤涉项目中拨款申请通常简称（写）（RFA ）拨款资拨款请求（CAR ）
•需更详细求数收集建立什工作需完成生产需产品交付信息准备足够细节计划美元数字请求予足够信心
•太正式设置中试图蒙混关
工作包WBS
项目理计划项目简介项目宪章
•果交付成果元素组成确定组装工作包（WPS ）工作分解结构（WBS ）形式提交
•WP 涉系列活动计划计划部分作工作 项目理计划请注意果该项目执行程中前进该规划水变更高更详细必
•该项目理计划方式应该成该项目圣执行阶段时时称项目简介项目宪章
•然估计种活动成估计费汇总确定WP 估计成种方法作详细估算估算知晓方法估算分钟达种方式结果该项目总工作估计费
注：该项目风险理规划次演重组成部分应该检查该项目假设
813页
环境条件确定该计划中弱点目前止找出值注意缓解潜风险事件采取具体应急计划形式预审慎资金储备
资求
转换估计
•然单独工作估计没足够资求达定资求转换必例通加入审慎津贴开销应急津贴弥补包括未知范围变化正常项目风险理储备
•外财务会计格式转换成估算数必满足目企业赞助商形式项目较拨款
•刚描述方法中数类型实践中法种情况代估算方法时尚中通提供程度性例：
订购数量级估计 球公园估计通常概念预留
类似估计 根前类似项目预算
参数估计 基历史数统计关系估计
•采种方法种希总全面批准证明令满意启动该项目执行阶段
注：理层批准错误认家提升铅笔更聪明工作组织利益助较总项目工作中理法理解确定性风险性质错误信念效果更导致产品质量降低产品范围功利影响切角
导致游戏中估计夸理员调整说句公道话理者清楚果超分配资金会花费智理做事情根项目风险预留队伍储备基金谨慎控制资金
核准资权
•果高级理层批准RFA 消融提出问题总成指定项目发起责果批准资求包括津贴储备理根该组织政策会会传递项目赞助商
•批准RFA 消融反项目发起会进步委托该项目项目理行开支权力包括津贴种异常涵盖工作表现正常变化应急准备
913页
•净总抵达构成项目理核准项目预算
注：果理批准RFA 消融应该考虑项目失败目标目规划需重新考虑增加交付项目价值
该项目执行阶段
项目理项目预算责
•该批准项目预算旦释放项目理反程中必须转换成工作控制文件方说钱必须分WBS 方式间现已升级结果作项目执行控制预算项目基线预算简单说项目预算项目理应领域称项目成计划
•企业生产部门参中型项目中进步创建控制账户独立部门中间步骤钱分WBS WPS
•通观察发现正式收批准长官理该项目总预算作项目理样必须寻求获执行理通该项目赞助商正式批准更改项目总预算通常改变产品范围基础唯合理接受求
•种情况该项目赞助商降低理储备提交层理员补充消融
•现项目预算资金分配工作包进步分发WP 项活动中知道作基准活动成少
•成控制功提供基础参考然取决做样事情WP 水控制力较高粗糙水情况
挣值技术
•果种控制工具必细节采取持续监测工作挣值（EV ）技术必须致力解题文艺术科学
•基掌日程安排活动费适时候绘制作累计次做活动水整项目水越低您控制信息越
成基线
•计划参考S曲线时称成基准通常EV 说法说预算成计划工作（BCWS ）者更简单计划价值（光伏）
•需修改成基线次改变成时间表影响批准范围改变该项目核准项目预算
•现着工作进展绘制执行工作实际成（ACWP 简单实际成 交流）
•您绘制事情面提图果喜欢需采取纠正行动
评
整程循环运行态势普遍名副实项目生命周期中循环词源
便说句挣值权威士提供EV 程中种技术设计帮助预测结果说估计完成（选会）选会真正应该感兴趣运动项目中唯变作估算精度相境界扩展EV 技术必须考虑非认识限制知道做什
正开始时说实践中困难实施时涉量工作面聘项目理？
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Project Cost Control The Way it Works
In a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control how it is setup and applied So we decided to write up a description of how it works Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory
First you establish a set of reference baselines Then as work progresses you monitor the work analyze the findings forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan you may have to change the plan More likely there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway
But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs It also involves a significant amount of work as we shall see and we might as well start at the beginning So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span
And while we are at it we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents These include the Business Case the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution) Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure the Project Charter (or Brief) the Project Budget or Cost Plan Earned Value and the Cost Baseline All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs
Footnote
113页
I am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming the guru of Earned Value for checking and correcting my work on this topic
The Business Case and Application for (execution) Funding
It is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points between the major phases They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events
In the project's Concept Phase
• Every project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need That is usually someone of importance or influence if the project is to proceed and that person often becomes the project's sponsor
• To determine the suitability of the potential project most organizations call for the preparation of a Business Case and its Order of Magnitude cost to justify the value of the project so that it can be compared with all the other competing projects This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio
• The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization The problem is how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward
• If the Business case has sufficient merit approval will be given to proceed to a Development and Definition phase
In the project's Development or Definition Phase
• The objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project
• In a formalized setting especially where big projects are involved this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR)
213页
• This requires the collection of more detailed requirements and data to establish what work needs to be done to produce the required product or deliverable From this information a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request
• In a less formalized setting everyone just tries to muddle through
Work Packages and the WBS
The Project Management Plan Project Brief or Project Charter
• If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements these are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) • Each WP involves a set of activities the work that is planned and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan Note however that the planning will still be at a relatively high level and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead
• This Project Management Plan by the way should become the bible for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the Project Brief or the Project Charter
• The cost of doing the various activities is then estimated and these estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP This approach is known as detailed estimating or bottom up estimating There are other approaches to estimating that we'll come to in a minute Either way the result is an estimated cost of the total work of the project
Note that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation This might take the form of specific contingency planning andor the setting aside of prudent funding reserves
Request for capital
Converting the estimate
• However an estimate of the work alone is not sufficient for a capital request To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary for example by adding prudent allowances such as overheads a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes
313页
• In addition it may be necessary to convert the estimating data into a financial accounting format that satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval
• In practice all the data for the type of bottom up approach just described may not be available In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a top down fashion For example
Order of Magnitude estimate – a ball park estimate usually reserved for the concept phase only
Analogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projects
Parametric estimate – an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data
• Whichever approach is adopted hopefully the sum thus arrived at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the project
Note Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to sharpen their pencils and work smarter for the benefit of the organization This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work Consequently the effect is more likely to result in corner cutting with an adverse effect on product quality or reduced product scope or functionality This often leads to a game in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust them downwards But to be fair management is also well aware that if money is over allocated it will get spent anyway The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds varying with the riskiness of the project and keep that money under careful control
Ownership of approved capital
• If senior management approves the RFA as presented the sum in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor However if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a Management Reserve this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor depending on the policies of the organization
• For the approved RFA the project sponsor will in turn further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance • The net sum thus arrived at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget
413页
Note If management does not approve the RFA you should not consider this a project failure Either the goals objectives justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding
The Project's Execution Phase
The project manager's Project Budget responsibility
• Once this Approved Project Budget is released to the project manager a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document That is the money available must be divided amongst the various WBS WPs that by the way have probably by now been upgraded This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget or simply the Project Budget In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan
• On a large project where different corporate production divisions are involved there may be a further intermediate step of creating Control Accounts for the separate divisions so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs
• Observe that since the total Project Budget received formal approval from Ex ecutive Management you as project manager must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management via the project's sponsor formal approval for any changes to the total project budget Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change
• In such a case the project's sponsor will either draw down on the management reserve in his or her possession or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management
• Now that we have the Project Budget money allocated to Work Pack ages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a Baseline cost for each activity
• This provides us with the base of reference for the cost control function Of course depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level
Use of the Earned Value technique
• If we have the necessary details another control tool that we can adopt for monitoring ongoing
work is the Earned Value (EV) technique This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject
• But essentially you take the costs of the schedule activities and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base Again you can do this at the activity level WP level or the whole project level The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in
The Cost Baseline
• This planned reference Scurve is sometimes referred to as the Cost Baseline typically in EV parlance That is it is the Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled (BCWS) or more simply the Planned Value (PV)
• Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost andor schedule implications and consequently changes the project's Approved Project Budget
• Now as the work progresses you can plot the Actual Cost of Work Performed (ACWP or simply Actual Cost AC)
• You can plot other things as well see diagram referred to above and if you don't like what you see then you need to take Corrective Action
Commentary
This whole process is a cyclic situational operation and is probably the source of the term cycle in the popularly misnamed project life cycle
As an aside the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result that is the Estimate At Completion (EAC) EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project Therefore these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as topdown estimating They are useful but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing
But as we said at the beginning it is a lot more difficult to do in practice – and involves a significant amount of work But let's face it that's what project managers are hired for right
613页
中文译文：
项目成控制：工作方式
咨询务中意识整项目成控制体系设置应问题缺乏解决定写出工作说明理讲项目成控制难
首先建立套参考基准然工作进展监察工作分析结果显示预测终结果参考基线作较果终结果令满意正进行中必工作进行调整适时间间隔重复循环果终结果已基线计划脱节改变计划更会（已）变化范围改变参考基线意味着次范围发生变化必须改变基线计划
通项目数量未控制成证明实践中项目成控制难真正实施涉相数量工作妨开始启动通整项目线程寿命进行工程造价控制
时机会指出显著适方文件措施包括商业案例（资）请求拨款（执行）工作包工作分解结构项目章程（摘）项目预算成计划获价值成基准助提高该组织效控制项目成力 脚注
感谢朋友师昆汀•弗莱明检查纠正关题工作
（执行）资助商业案例应
重注意负责执行理者项目应通项目寿命展开问题理解时项目成控制效意味着阶段关键决策点间行责必须认识少明显潜危险事件查明规划掌
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关闭项目风险理重性
项目概念阶段
•项目确定机会需开始通常定重性影响力果该项目继续进行成该项目赞助者
•确定潜项目适性数组织呼吁编制商业案例量级成证明该项目价值项目竞争
•企业商业案例准备工作成通常包括理开销结转终项目会计成毫疑问该组织提供税务利益问题占结转项目？
•果足够商业案例优点赞助者继续发展定义阶段
该项目发展定义阶段
•开发阶段目标建立种涉生产需产品估计成该项目实际执行寻求资资金良工作认识
•正式设置尤涉项目中拨款申请通常简称（写）（RFA ）拨款资拨款请求（CAR ）
•需更详细求数收集建立什工作需完成生产需产品交付信息准备足够细节计划美元数字请求予足够信心
•太正式设置中试图蒙混关
工作包WBS
项目理计划项目简介项目宪章
•果交付成果元素组成确定组装工作包（WPS ）工作分解结构（WBS ）形式提交
•WP 涉系列活动计划计划部分作工作 项目理计划请注意果该项目执行程中前进该规划水变更高更详细必
•该项目理计划方式应该成该项目圣执行阶段时时称项目简介项目宪章
•然估计种活动成估计费汇总确定WP 估计成种方法作详细估算估算知晓方法估算分钟达种方式结果该项目总工作估计费
注：该项目风险理规划次演重组成部分应该检查该项目假设
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环境条件确定该计划中弱点目前止找出值注意缓解潜风险事件采取具体应急计划形式预审慎资金储备
资求
转换估计
•然单独工作估计没足够资求达定资求转换必例通加入审慎津贴开销应急津贴弥补包括未知范围变化正常项目风险理储备
•外财务会计格式转换成估算数必满足目企业赞助商形式项目较拨款
•刚描述方法中数类型实践中法种情况代估算方法时尚中通提供程度性例：
订购数量级估计 球公园估计通常概念预留
类似估计 根前类似项目预算
参数估计 基历史数统计关系估计
•采种方法种希总全面批准证明令满意启动该项目执行阶段
注：理层批准错误认家提升铅笔更聪明工作组织利益助较总项目工作中理法理解确定性风险性质错误信念效果更导致产品质量降低产品范围功利影响切角
导致游戏中估计夸理员调整说句公道话理者清楚果超分配资金会花费智理做事情根项目风险预留队伍储备基金谨慎控制资金
核准资权
•果高级理层批准RFA 消融提出问题总成指定项目发起责果批准资求包括津贴储备理根该组织政策会会传递项目赞助商
•批准RFA 消融反项目发起会进步委托该项目项目理行开支权力包括津贴种异常涵盖工作表现正常变化应急准备
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•净总抵达构成项目理核准项目预算
注：果理批准RFA 消融应该考虑项目失败目标目规划需重新考虑增加交付项目价值
该项目执行阶段
项目理项目预算责
•该批准项目预算旦释放项目理反程中必须转换成工作控制文件方说钱必须分WBS 方式间现已升级结果作项目执行控制预算项目基线预算简单说项目预算项目理应领域称项目成计划
•企业生产部门参中型项目中进步创建控制账户独立部门中间步骤钱分WBS WPS
•通观察发现正式收批准长官理该项目总预算作项目理样必须寻求获执行理通该项目赞助商正式批准更改项目总预算通常改变产品范围基础唯合理接受求
•种情况该项目赞助商降低理储备提交层理员补充消融
•现项目预算资金分配工作包进步分发WP 项活动中知道作基准活动成少
•成控制功提供基础参考然取决做样事情WP 水控制力较高粗糙水情况
挣值技术
•果种控制工具必细节采取持续监测工作挣值（EV ）技术必须致力解题文艺术科学
•基掌日程安排活动费适时候绘制作累计次做活动水整项目水越低您控制信息越
成基线
•计划参考S曲线时称成基准通常EV 说法说预算成计划工作（BCWS ）者更简单计划价值（光伏）
•需修改成基线次改变成时间表影响批准范围改变该项目核准项目预算
•现着工作进展绘制执行工作实际成（ACWP 简单实际成 交流）
•您绘制事情面提图果喜欢需采取纠正行动
评
整程循环运行态势普遍名副实项目生命周期中循环词源
便说句挣值权威士提供EV 程中种技术设计帮助预测结果说估计完成（选会）选会真正应该感兴趣运动项目中唯变作估算精度相境界扩展EV 技术必须考虑非认识限制知道做什
正开始时说实践中困难实施时涉量工作面聘项目理？
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